Fundamental Economic Models

1. The Circular Flow Model

The circular flow model is one of the most basic and foundational economic models. It illustrates how money, goods, and services flow through an economy between two primary sectors: households and firms.

Imagine an economy where households own all the factors of production (labor, land, capital, entrepreneurship) and consume goods and services. Firms, on the other hand, produce goods and services using these factors of production and sell them to households.

In the circular flow, there are two main markets:

• Factor Markets: Where firms buy factors of production from households (e.g., firms hire labor from households, paying wages).

• Product Markets: Where households buy goods and services from firms (e.g., households buy consumer goods from firms, paying revenue).

Money flows in one direction (clockwise usually in diagrams) and goods/services/factors of production flow in the opposite direction (counter-clockwise).

Importance of Circular Flow Models:

• To understand Interdependence: It highlights the interdependence between different sectors of the economy.

• GDP Calculation: It forms the basis for understanding how Gross Domestic Product (GDP) can be measured through expenditure, income, or production.

• For Macro Policies: It can be expanded to include government, financial markets, and international trade, offering a more complete picture for policy analysis.

2. The Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF)

The Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF), also known as the Production Possibilities Curve (PPC), is a model that illustrates scarcity, trade-offs, opportunity cost, and efficiency in an economy.

Imagine an economy that can produce only two goods, say, "Cars" and "Computers," using all its available resources and technology efficiently. The PPF is a curve that shows the maximum possible output combinations of these two goods.

• Points on the curve: Represent efficient production, where all resources are fully employed.

• Points inside the curve: Indicate inefficient production or underutilization of resources.

• Points outside the curve: Are unattainable with current resources and technology.

The downward slope of the PPF demonstrates trade-offs: to produce more of one good, the economy must produce less of the other. The opportunity cost of producing one more unit of a good is the amount of the other good that must be sacrificed. A bowed-out shape typically indicates increasing opportunity costs, meaning that as you produce more of one good, the resources you reallocate become progressively less efficient at producing that good and better suited for the other.

We have an in-depth article on PPC for you to refer.

3. Supply and Demand Model

Perhaps the most famous and widely used economic model, the supply and demand model explains how prices and quantities of goods and services are determined in a competitive market.

• Demand Curve: Shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity consumers are willing and able to buy, holding all other factors constant. It typically slopes downward, reflecting the law of demand (as price increases, quantity demanded decreases).

• Supply Curve: Shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity producers are willing and able to sell, holding all other factors constant. It typically slopes upward, reflecting the law of supply (as price increases, quantity supplied increases).

The intersection of the supply and demand curves determines the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity in the market. At this point, the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied, and there is no pressure for the price to change.

4. The Aggregate Demand-Aggregate Supply (AD-AS) Model

The AD-AS model is a powerful tool for analyzing the overall level of output and prices in an economy, particularly for understanding business cycles, inflation, and unemployment.

• Aggregate Demand (AD): Represents the total demand for all goods and services produced in an economy at different price levels. It typically slopes downward because a lower overall price level tends to increase consumption, investment, government spending, and net exports.

• Aggregate Supply (AS): Represents the total supply of all goods and services produced in an economy at different price levels. The AS curve typically has two main segments:

• Short-Run Aggregate Supply (SRAS): Slopes upward, indicating that in the short run, firms can increase output in response to higher prices, often by utilizing existing capacity more intensively.

• Long-Run Aggregate Supply (LRAS): Is vertical at the economy's potential output (full employment output), indicating that in the long run, the total supply of goods and services is determined by the economy's resources and technology, not by the price level.

The intersection of the AD and AS curves determines the equilibrium level of real GDP and the aggregate price level. Shifts in either curve can lead to recessions, inflationary gaps, or economic growth.

5. The IS-LM Model (Investment-Saving / Liquidity Preference-Money Supply)

Developed by John Hicks and Alvin Hansen, the IS-LM model is a cornerstone of Keynesian macroeconomics. It analyzes the interaction between goods markets (IS curve) and money markets (LM curve) to determine equilibrium interest rates and national income (output).

Description:

• IS Curve (Investment-Saving): Represents all combinations of interest rates and levels of national income where the goods market is in equilibrium (total spending equals total output). It slopes downward because a lower interest rate stimulates investment, which in turn boosts aggregate demand and national income.

• LM Curve (Liquidity Preference-Money Supply): Represents all combinations of interest rates and levels of national income where the money market is in equilibrium (money demand equals money supply). It slopes upward because a higher national income leads to increased demand for money, which pushes up interest rates, given a fixed money supply.

The intersection of the IS and LM curves determines the unique equilibrium interest rate and national income level that simultaneously satisfy equilibrium in both the goods and money markets.

Theoretical Models in Economics – Foundations and Applications

Theoretical models are abstract representations of economic behavior constructed through a set of predefined assumptions. They use logical reasoning and mathematical structures to explore interactions, determine equilibrium conditions, and predict outcomes.

1. The Classical Model: The Invisible Hand at Work

The Classical Model, deeply rooted in the foundational works of pioneers like Adam Smith and David Ricardo, represents one of the earliest and most influential frameworks in economic thought. It posits a world where free markets are inherently self-regulating and efficient, requiring minimal to no government intervention to achieve optimal outcomes.

Core Assumptions & Principles:

• Flexible Prices and Wages: A cornerstone of the Classical Model is the assumption that prices and wages are perfectly flexible and adjust quickly to changes in supply and demand. This flexibility ensures that markets always "clear," meaning there are no persistent surpluses or shortages. If there's an excess supply of labor, wages fall, increasing demand for labor until full employment is restored.

• Say's Law: Often summarized as "supply creates its own demand," Say's Law implies that the act of producing goods and services generates an equivalent amount of income, which is then spent on those goods and services. This essentially means that overproduction leading to widespread unemployment is a temporary phenomenon, as markets will always adjust.

• Rational Economic Agents: Individuals and firms are assumed to act rationally, making decisions that maximize their self-interest (e.g., consumers maximize utility, firms maximize profits).

• Full Employment: The economy naturally gravitates towards full employment in the long run. Any deviations are temporary and corrected by the market's self-adjusting mechanisms.

• Limited Government Intervention (Laissez-Faire): Due to the self-correcting nature of markets, the Classical Model advocates for a laissez-faire approach, suggesting that government intervention (e.g., fiscal or monetary policy) is largely unnecessary and often counterproductive.

Mathematical Representation:

The fundamental equilibrium condition in the Classical Model, particularly in a closed economy context that can be expanded, often focuses on the national output being equal to the sum of its components when all markets are in balance:

Where:

• Y represents National Output (or Real GDP), the total value of all goods and services produced.

• C denotes Consumption, spending by households on goods and services.

• I signifies Investment, spending by firms on capital goods and by households on new housing.

• G corresponds to Government Spending, expenditure by the public sector on goods and services.

• NX represents Net Exports, the difference between exports and imports (relevant for open economies, sometimes simplified out in basic closed-economy discussions of the classical model).

This equation, when viewed through the classical lens, suggests that output is primarily determined by the supply-side factors (e.g., available labor, capital, technology), and demand will adjust to absorb this supply.

2. The Keynesian Model: The Power of Aggregate Demand

Developed by John Maynard Keynes during the tumultuous era of the Great Depression, the Keynesian Model emerged as a revolutionary counterpoint to classical economic thought. It fundamentally challenged the notion of self-correcting markets, arguing that an economy could remain stuck in prolonged periods of high unemployment and underproduction due to insufficient aggregate demand.

Core Assumptions & Principles:

• Sticky Prices and Wages: Unlike the Classical Model, Keynesian economics posits that prices and wages are "sticky" in the short run, meaning they don't adjust immediately to clear markets. This rigidity (due to factors like labor contracts, menu costs, or psychological resistance to wage cuts) can prevent the economy from quickly returning to full employment.

• Role of Aggregate Demand: Keynes emphasized that the overall level of economic activity is primarily determined by aggregate demand (total spending in the economy). If aggregate demand is too low, firms will reduce production and lay off workers, leading to a recession.

• Underemployment Equilibrium: The economy can settle at an equilibrium level where resources, particularly labor, are underemployed. This directly contradicts the classical idea of automatic full employment.

• Multiplier Effect: A key concept is the multiplier, which states that an initial change in spending (e.g., government investment) can lead to a proportionally larger change in national income.

• Active Government Intervention: Given the potential for prolonged recessions, Keynesian theory advocates for active government intervention through fiscal policy (changes in government spending and taxation) and monetary policy (central bank control over the money supply) to stimulate demand and stabilize the economy.

Mathematical Representation:

A central element of the Keynesian Model is the consumption function, which describes the relationship between consumption and disposable income:

This function highlights how consumption, a major component of aggregate demand, is driven by current income levels and intrinsic spending habits.

3. The Monetarist Model: The Centrality of Money Supply

Led by Milton Friedman, the Monetarist Model emerged as a critique of Keynesianism. Monetarists argue that the primary driver of economic health is not aggregate demand, but the total supply of money in circulation. According to this view:

• Excessive growth in the money supply is the fundamental cause of inflation.

• Sudden contractions in money supply can lead to recessions.

Core Principles:

• Money Neutrality (Long Run): Changes in money supply may affect output in the short run, but in the long run, they only influence the price level.

• Rejection of Discretionary Fiscal Policy: Monetarists see government spending as largely ineffective, often crowding out private investment. They advocate instead for a steady, predictable growth rate of the money supply.

• The Quantity Theory of Money: This theory forms the mathematical backbone of the model:

MV = PY

Where:

• M = Money supply

• V = Velocity of money (how often a unit of currency is spent)

• P = Price level

• Y = Real output (GDP)

4. The Supply-Side Model: Incentivizing Production

The Supply-Side Model emphasizes the “supply” side of the economy, arguing that growth is best achieved by lowering barriers to production. This approach became highly influential in the 1980s, often associated with Reaganomics.

Core Principles:

• Tax Cuts as Stimulus: Lowering marginal tax rates encourages individuals to work more and businesses to invest, expanding the economy's productive capacity.

• Deregulation: Reducing government oversight lowers production costs and sparks innovation.

• The Laffer Curve: Suggests there is an optimal tax rate that maximizes revenue. Too high a tax rate can discourage work and investment, reducing total revenue.

T_R = f(t)

Where:

• T_R = Total tax revenue

• t = Tax rate

5. The New Classical Model: Rational Expectations

The New Classical Model modernizes classical economics by incorporating Rational Expectations. It assumes people are forward-looking and use all available information to make decisions.

Core Principles:

• Policy Ineffectiveness: If the government announces a stimulus, rational citizens anticipate inflation and adjust their behavior (e.g., demanding higher wages), which can neutralize the policy’s intended effect.

• Efficient Markets: Markets are assumed to be highly efficient and reach equilibrium almost immediately.

• Expectations-Augmented Phillips Curve: There is no long-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment. The relationship is expressed as:

π = π_e + β(u - u_n)

Where:

• π = Actual inflation

• π_e = Expected inflation

• u = Unemployment rate

• u_n = Natural rate of unemployment

Growth and Dynamic Models

Beyond daily market fluctuations, economists use specialized models to study how nations grow over decades and how specific industries fluctuate.

Convergence vs. Divergence Models

a. Convergence (Solow-Swan Model):

This theory suggests “catch-up growth” occurs. Since capital exhibits diminishing returns, poorer countries with less capital tend to grow faster than rich countries, eventually reaching a similar level of wealth.

Equation:

k̇ = s·f(k) − (δ + n)·k

Where:

• k = Capital per worker

• s = Savings rate

• δ = Depreciation rate

• n = Population growth

b. Divergence

In contrast, the Divergence model explains why some countries remain trapped in poverty while others continue to prosper.

Major Drivers of Divergence:

1. Structural Constraints: Poor infrastructure, limited access to technology, and weak financial systems prevent capital accumulation and efficient production.

2. Institutional Weakness: Countries with weak governance, corruption, or political instability often fail to create an environment conducive to economic growth.

3. Technological Monopolies: Rich nations or large corporations may dominate advanced technologies, creating barriers that developing nations cannot easily overcome.

4. Human Capital Gaps: Differences in education, skills, and healthcare affect labor productivity, keeping poorer nations at a disadvantage.

5. Geographical and Environmental Factors: Landlocked countries, harsh climates, or resource scarcity can limit trade and growth potential.

Outcome:

• Rich countries continue to grow and innovate, benefiting from capital accumulation, technological progress, and efficient institutions.

• Poor countries struggle to catch up, often facing cycles of stagnation or slow growth.

The Divergence model emphasizes that economic growth is not automatic. Without structural reforms, institutional development, and investment in human capital, poorer nations may remain economically marginalized despite global economic expansion.

2. The Cobweb Model: The Pendulum of Prices

The Cobweb Model is a dynamic framework used to analyze markets where production takes time. This time lag causes price and quantity fluctuations that, when graphed, resemble a spider web. It is particularly useful for understanding cyclical "boom and bust" patterns in industries like agriculture, livestock, and real estate.

This happens due to a time lag between production decisions and actual sales. For example:

• If strawberry prices are high this year, all farmers plant strawberries.

• Next year, the market sees a surplus, prices crash, and farmers stop planting.

• The following year, a shortage occurs, causing prices to rise again.

This cycle creates the characteristic “see-saw” of prices.

The mechanism is simple: producers base their future output on today's price, but by the time that output reaches the market, the volume of supply creates a new price.

Mathematically:

• Future output: Q(t+1)

• Current price: P(t)

The next period’s price P(t+1) is then determined by the total quantity reaching the market.

Three Types of Cobweb Phenomena

The market behavior—whether it stabilizes or spirals out of control—depends on the relative steepness (elasticity) of the supply and demand curves.

1. The Convergent (Damped) Case

• Condition: The demand curve is flatter (more elastic) than the supply curve.

• Outcome: Consumers respond more to price changes than producers, gradually damping price swings.

Initially, prices swing up and down, but each swing is smaller than the previous one. Eventually, the market reaches stable equilibrium. In the above diagram, arrows spiral inward. A high price increases production slightly, and the subsequent price drop is small, narrowing the gap until equilibrium is reached.

2. The Divergent (Explosive) Case

• Condition: The supply curve is flatter (more elastic) than the demand curve.

• Outcome: Producers overreact to price changes, causing increasingly violent fluctuations.

A small price rise triggers a large surge in production. When the resulting oversupply hits the market, prices crash dramatically, leading to near-production halts, followed by another spike.

In In the above graph, the arrows spiral outward, illustrating a market that becomes increasingly unstable. This explains why some industries may require government intervention. This explains why some industries may require government intervention.

3. The Continuous (Persistent) Case

• Condition: The slopes (elasticities) of supply and demand are exactly equal.

• Outcome: Prices and quantities follow a perpetual loop, neither stabilizing nor exploding.

The market enters a state of constant oscillation, with prices and quantities cycling indefinitely around the equilibrium.

In thee graph above, the "web" forms a perfect rectangle, showing a balanced but never-ending cycle. The path forms a perfect rectangle or closed loop around the equilibrium point. This occurs when the slopes (elasticities) of the supply and demand curves are exactly equal. The market repeats the same price and quantity swings indefinitely.

Empirical Models

While the above models are theoretical “maps”, Empirical Models use real data to test their accuracy.

1. Regression Models

These analyze historical data to find correlations. A simple model looks like:

Y = α + βX + ε

Where:

• X = Independent variable (e.g., education)

• Y = Dependent variable (e.g., salary)

• α = Intercept, β = Coefficient, ε = Error term

2. Econometric Models

Econometric models are sophisticated extensions of simple regression analysis. Unlike basic regressions that examine the relationship between two variables, econometric models can simultaneously analyze dozens of variables, allowing economists to capture the complexity of real-world economies.

These models are widely used to forecast national and global economic trends, such as:

• GDP growth over time

• Inflation patterns

• Unemployment fluctuations

• Investment and consumption behavior

By incorporating multiple factors—like interest rates, government spending, trade balances, and demographic shifts—econometric models provide more accurate and reliable predictions. Policymakers, financial institutions, and researchers rely on these models to design effective economic policies and respond to emerging economic challenges.

Main Advantages:

• Handles multiple variables simultaneously for robust analysis

• Predicts short-term and long-term economic trends

• Helps policymakers plan fiscal and monetary interventions

3. Simulation (DSGE) Models

Dynamic Stochastic General Equilibrium (DSGE) models are advanced economic simulations used by central banks, financial institutions, and government agencies. These models simulate how the entire economy responds to shocks, including both domestic and international disturbances.

Common scenarios analyzed using DSGE models include:

• Oil price spikes impacting production and inflation

• Global pandemics affecting consumption, investment, and labor markets

• Monetary policy changes and interest rate adjustments

By combining dynamic equations with stochastic (random) shocks, DSGE models allow economists to study both the short-term fluctuations and long-term equilibrium of the economy. This makes them indispensable for risk assessment, policy planning, and crisis management.

Main Advantages:

• Simulates complex interactions between sectors of the economy

• Assesses potential outcomes of economic policies before implementation

• Supports data-driven decision-making for central banks and governments

Critical Limitations of Economic Models

Here are the primary limitations of economic models:

1. The "Ceteris Paribus" Fallacy

Most economic models rely on the principle of ceteris paribus—a Latin phrase meaning "all other things being equal." In a model, an economist might isolate how a change in interest rates affects investment while assuming political stability, consumer confidence, and global trade remain unchanged.

In the real world, "other things" are never equal. A sudden geopolitical conflict or a technological breakthrough can happen simultaneously, rendering the model's isolated conclusion inaccurate.

2. The Over-Simplification of Human Behavior

Many fundamental models, such as the Classical and New Classical models, assume that humans are Homo Economicus—perfectly rational actors who always seek to maximize utility with perfect information.

However, the field of Behavioral Economics has proven that humans are often irrational, driven by emotions, social pressure, and cognitive biases. Models often fail to account for "panic buying," "irrational exuberance," or the herd mentality that leads to market bubbles and crashes.

3. Sensitivity to Initial Assumptions

An economic model is only as strong as its foundation. If the starting assumptions are slightly off, the entire output can be wildly misleading.

For instance, the Keynesian Multiplier assumes a specific "Marginal Propensity to Consume" ($c$). If the government estimates that citizens will spend 80% of a tax rebate, but citizens—fearing a recession—decide to save 80% instead, the resulting policy will fail to stimulate the economy as predicted.

4. The "Black Swan" Blind Spot

Empirical and Econometric models rely heavily on historical data. They look at the past to predict the future. This works well during stable times but fails during "Black Swan" events—rare, unpredictable occurrences with extreme impacts.

Models used before the 2008 financial crisis or the 2020 global pandemic did not have these scenarios in their "historical memory," making the models essentially blind to the approaching catastrophes.

5. Time Lags and Dynamic Complexity

As seen in the Cobweb Model, there is often a significant delay between an economic cause and its effect. Models struggle to capture the "messy" transition periods.

While a model can show the starting point and the eventual equilibrium, it often fails to predict how long the transition will take or the "frictional" costs (like temporary unemployment or business closures) that occur while the market is trying to adjust.

6. Neglect of Non-Quantifiable Factors

Economic models excel at processing numbers—GDP, interest rates, and tax percentages. However, they often struggle to incorporate qualitative factors that are just as important, such as:

• Institutional Quality: The level of corruption or the strength of the rule of law.

• Culture: Societal attitudes toward work, debt, and risk.

• Environmental Impact: Many traditional growth models (like the Solow-Swan Model) historically ignored the depletion of natural resources or the cost of pollution.

7. The Policy Ineffectiveness Counter-Action

Highlighted by the New Classical Model and the concept of Rational Expectations, models can be undermined by the very people they are trying to analyze.

If a central bank uses a model to predict that a "surprise" inflation boost will lower unemployment, but the public anticipates this move based on the same economic logic, workers will demand higher wages immediately. This "rational" reaction can neutralize the policy's effect, making the model’s predicted outcome impossible to achieve.

Conclusion

Economic models provide a structured methodology for analyzing economic phenomena, providing clarity on both theoretical mechanisms and empirical realities. From the Classical Model’s focus on free-market efficiency to the Econometric Model’s data-driven forecasts, these tools help us interpret central economic problems. Although they are not crystal balls, they are the most effective way to shape the economic strategies of the future.

१. दिइएका शब्द र अर्थबिच जोडा मिलाउनुहोस् :

२. दिइएका अर्थ दिने शब्द पाठबाट खोज्नुहोस् :

३. दिइएका टुक्काको अर्थ पहिल्याउनुहोस् र वाक्यमा प्रयोग गर्नुहोस् :

इन्तु न चिन्तु हुनु
अर्थ: अत्यन्तै व्याकुल वा मानसिक रूपमा असन्तुलित हुनु
वाक्य: छोरा बेपत्ता भएको खबर सुनेपछि आमा इन्तु न चिन्तु भइन्।

दाँत गाड्नु
अर्थ: अरूको अधिकार वा हिस्सामाथि अनुचित नजर राख्नु
वाक्य: केही व्यक्तिहरू सरकारी जग्गामा दाँत गाडेर आफ्नो बनाउन खोजिरहेका छन्।

टाप कस्नु
अर्थ: जिम्मेवारीबाट पन्छिँदै चुपचाप भाग्नु
वाक्य: प्रश्न उठ्न थालेपछि उसले बैठकबाटै टाप कस्यो।

ढड्रङ्ग लड्नु
अर्थ: एक्कासि र ठूलो प्रभावसहित भत्किनु
वाक्य: पहिरोका कारण सडकछेउको पुरानो घर ढड्रङ्ग लड्यो।

टाउको खानु
अर्थ: निरन्तर झन्झट दिएर मानसिक तनाव सिर्जना गर्नु
वाक्य: अनावश्यक गुनासोले उसले सबैको टाउको खान थालेको छ।

सुइँकुच्चा ठोक्नु
अर्थ: डर वा संकट देखेर तुरुन्तै भाग्नु
वाक्य: पत्रकार देख्नेबित्तिकै भ्रष्ट कर्मचारीले सुइँकुच्चा ठोके।

बाटो हेर्नु
अर्थ: आशा राखेर कुनै परिणामको पर्खाइ गर्नु
वाक्य: वर्षौँदेखि किसानहरू सिंचाइ आयोजनाको बाटो हेरिरहेका छन्।

काँध हाल्नु
अर्थ: कठिन परिस्थितिमा साथ र सहयोग प्रदान गर्नु
वाक्य: विपद्का बेला सबै नागरिकले सरकारलाई काँध हाल्नुपर्छ।

तातो लाग्नु
अर्थ: ढिला भए पनि चासो देखिनु वा सक्रिय बन्नु
वाक्य: जनआन्दोलन चर्किएपछि मात्र प्रशासनलाई तातो लाग्यो।

४. दिइएका उखानको प्रयोग गरी एक अनुच्छेद लेख्नुहोस् :

बोध र अभिव्यक्ति

१. 'गोर्खे' कथा पढी यसको पहिलो र अन्तिम अनुच्छेदका घटना भन्नुहोस् ।

२. 'गोर्खे' कथा पढी दिइएका प्रश्नको उत्तर दिनुहोस् :

(क) पेशल कसरी जीवन निर्वाह गर्छ?
पेशल कम्प्युटर प्राविधिक भएकाले सफ्टवेयर विकास र अन्यका कम्प्युटर मर्मत गरेर आम्दानी गर्छ। उसले आफ्नै सिर्जना गरेको प्रोग्राममार्फत समस्या समाधान गर्ने काम पनि गर्छ, जसबाट उसले आफ्नो दैनिक जीवनयापन गर्छ।

(ख) सतपालले पेशललाई आफ्नो घरमा किन बोलायो?
सतपालको कम्प्युटर अचानक काम गर्न छोडेपछि उसले पेशललाई आफ्नो घरमा आउन आग्रह गर्यो, ताकि पेशलले कम्प्युटरको समस्या समाधान गर्न सकून्।

(ग) पेशलले सतपालको कम्प्युटर कसरी मर्मत गर्यो?
पेशलले कम्प्युटरमा समस्या भएको फाइल र भाइरस पत्ता लगायो र आफ्नो निर्माण गरेको “गोर्खे” एन्टिभाइरस प्रयोग गरी भाइरस हटायो। यसरी कम्प्युटर पुनः सामान्य अवस्थामा आयो।

(घ) कम्प्युटरको डाइलग बक्समा देखा परेको गोर्खे एन्टिभाइरसको स्वरूप कस्तो थियो?
डाइलग बक्समा गोर्खे एन्टिभाइरस टाउकामा सिङ, तेज आँखा, बलियो अनुहार र रूखका पातको पहिरनमा देखिन्थ्यो, जसले साहस र शक्ति दर्शाउँथ्यो।

(ङ) ब्रोन्टक भाइरसले कम्प्युटरलाई कसरी बिगार्छ?
ब्रोन्टक भाइरसले कम्प्युटरमा रहेका मुख्य फोल्डरहरू लुकाउँछ र अनावश्यक धेरै फाइलहरू बनाइ कम्प्युटर ओभरलोड गर्छ, जसले कम्प्युटर काम गर्न नसक्ने बनाउँछ।

३. कम्प्युटरलाई सुरक्षित राख्न वा भाइरसमुक्त बनाउन त्यसमा एन्टिभाइरस इन्स्टल गर्नुपरे झैँ मानिसलाई भाइरसको सङ्क्रमण हुन नदिन र सङ्क्रमित भइसकेको अवस्थामा त्यसबाट मुक्त बनाउन के गर्नुपर्ला, छलफल गरी उत्तर दिनुहोस् ।

कम्प्युटरमा भाइरस रोक्न एन्टिभाइरस आवश्यक जस्तै, मानिसलाई पनि रोगजन्य भाइरसबाट जोगिन उपयुक्त जीवनशैली, व्यक्तिगत सरसफाइ, आहार, मानसिक शान्ति र सकारात्मक चिन्तन आवश्यक हुन्छ। हाम्रो शरीरमा रोगजन्य सूक्ष्मजीव प्रवेश गर्ने सबैभन्दा सामान्य मार्ग खानाका माध्यमबाट हुन्छ, त्यसैले खाना तयार गर्दा हात, भाँडा, भान्साका सतहहरू सफा राख्नुपर्छ। फलफूल र तरकारी राम्ररी धोएर मात्र खानुपर्छ, र खाना अघि र पछि साबुन पानीले हात धुनु अनिवार्य छ। शरीरमा भाइरस र कीटाणु बस्न नपाओस् भनी बाथरूम, भान्सा र घरका अन्य सतहहरू नियमित रूपमा कीटाणुरहित गर्नुपर्छ। टूथब्रस, रेजर, तौलिया जस्ता व्यक्तिगत वस्तु अरूसँग साझा गर्नु हुँदैन। यदि कसैले मानसिक तनाव, दुर्व्यसन, वा अस्वस्थ जीवनशैलीका कारण भाइरससँग सङ्क्रमित भइसकेको छ भने समयमै चिकित्सक वा मनोचिकित्सकको परामर्श लिनु र आवश्यक औषधीहरू सेवन गर्नु अत्यन्तै आवश्यक छ। यसरी मानिसले स्वास्थ्यवर्धक आहार, सफाइ, नियमित व्यायाम र सकारात्मक वातावरण अपनाएमा न केवल भाइरसको संक्रमण रोक्न सकिन्छ, तर सङ्क्रमित भए पनि सजिलै निको हुन सकिन्छ। यस्तो सावधानीले दीर्घकालीन स्वास्थ्य सुनिश्चित हुन्छ र शरीर तथा मन दुवैलाई बलियो बनाउँछ।

४. 'गोर्खे' कथा पढी दिइएका घटनालाई क्रम मिलाई लेख्नुहोस् :

५. दिइएको कथांश पढी सोधिएका प्रश्नको उत्तर दिनुहोस् :

(क) 'भाइरसलाई उठाएर खरानीको घेराभित्र थेचायो' भन्नुको तात्पर्य के हो?
यस कथामा लेखक बखतबहादुर थापाले कम्प्युटर र प्राविधिक विषयलाई रोचक शैलीमा प्रस्तुत गरेका छन्। यहाँ ‘भाइरसलाई उठाएर खरानीको घेराभित्र थेच्नु’ भन्नाले एन्टिभाइरस गोर्खेले भाइरसलाई नियन्त्रणमा राखेर नष्ट गर्ने प्रक्रियालाई जनाउँछ। पेशलले निर्माण गरेको एन्टिभाइरसले भाइरसलाई फेला पारेर त्यसलाई खरानीमा राखेर पुनः सक्रिय हुन नदिन नियन्त्रणमा लिन्छ। यस क्रियालाई धार्मिक, तान्त्रिक र जैविक दृष्टिकोणबाट भाइरसलाई निष्क्रिय पार्ने उपायको रूपमा चित्रण गरिएको छ।

(ख) गोर्खेले कम्प्युटरलाई भाइरसमुक्त बनाउन गरेका क्रियाकलाप के के हुन्?
कथामा गोर्खे नामक एन्टिभाइरसले कम्प्युटरमा रहेका फाइलहरू स्क्यान गरी भाइरस पत्ता लगाउँछ। त्यसपछि भाइरसलाई अलग राखेर खरानीमा थेच्ने, नष्ट गर्ने वा मेट्ने प्रक्रिया अपनाउँछ। यस क्रममा हार्डडिस्कका फाइलहरू व्यवस्थित तरिकाले पुनर्स्थापना गर्दै सुरक्षित फाइलहरू राखिन्छन्। यसरी गोर्खेले कम्प्युटरलाई भाइरसमुक्त बनाउन पूर्ण प्रयास गर्छ।

६. दिइएको कथांश पढी सोधिएका प्रश्नको उत्तर लेख्नुहोस् :

(क) एन्टिभाइरस गोर्खे र भाइरसले एकअर्कामाथि विजय प्राप्त गर्न के के गरेका छन्?
कथामा एन्टिभाइरस गोर्खे र भाइरसबीच कम्प्युटर स्क्यानको क्रममा प्रत्यक्ष संघर्ष देखाइएको छ। पेशलले गोर्खे इन्स्टल गरेर कम्प्युटर स्क्यान गर्दा एन्टिभाइरस र भाइरसले एकअर्कालाई हराउने प्रयास गर्छन्। गोर्खेले भाइरसलाई खुट्टाले थिच्न खोज्दा भाइरसले टोक्छ, त्यसपछि गोर्खेले दाहा प्रहार गरेर भाइरसको नियन्त्रण गर्छ। यसरी दुबै पक्षले आफ्ना बल प्रयोग गरेर एकअर्कामाथि विजय प्राप्त गर्न खोजेका छन्। अन्ततः एन्टिभाइरस गोर्खेले विजय प्राप्त गर्छ।

(ख) अन्य भाइरसको गतिविधि र कम्प्युटरमा असर के के हुन्?
कथामा तेस्रो प्रकारको भाइरस टेम्पोररी फोल्डरमा बस्छ। यसले प्रोग्रामका फाइलहरू चल्नमा अवरोध पुर्‍याउँछ, CPU र हार्डडिस्कलाई अत्यधिक व्यस्त बनाउँछ, फाइलहरू अनियन्त्रित बन्द गराउँछ, र पेजहरू अनावश्यक रूपमा तलमाथि सराउँछ। यसरी कम्प्युटरको सामान्य कामकाज प्रभावित हुन्छ।

७. कथाकारले कम्प्युटर स्क्यानसम्बन्धी विषयवस्तुको प्रस्तुतिका लागि अवलम्बन गरेको कथाशैली तपाईंलाई कस्तो लाग्यो, कथात्मक सन्दर्भका आधारमा विश्लेषण गर्नुहोस् ।

यस कथाका रचयिता बखतबहादुर थापा नेपाली साहित्यमा सामाजिक यथार्थवादी, प्रगतिवादी र समसामयिक दृष्टिकोण भएका कथाकार हुन्। उनले आफ्नो आख्यान विधामा प्रायः कम्प्युटर र प्राविधिक क्षेत्रसँग सम्बन्धित विषयवस्तुहरूलाई समेटेर रोचक, ज्ञानवर्द्धक र मनोरञ्जक कथाहरू सिर्जना गर्ने कला राखेका छन्। थापाका कथाहरूमा ग्रामीण र सहरी परिवेश, सामाजिक सम्बन्ध, पारिवारिक संरचना र समसामयिक युगचेतनाका विविध पक्षहरू देख्न पाइन्छ। यस कथामा पनि लेखकले न्याय र समतामूलक समाज निर्माणको चाहना झल्किने गरी यथार्थपरक सामाजिक परिस्थितिहरूलाई कथा भित्र समावेश गरेका छन्।

कथाको प्रमुख पात्र पेशल सिर्जनात्मक र प्रविधिसम्बन्धी चिन्तन भएको व्यक्तित्वको मालिक हो। उसले आफूले निर्माण गरेको गोर्खे नामक कम्प्युटर एन्टिभाइरस प्रयोग गरी सतपालको भाइरसग्रस्त कम्प्युटरलाई भाइरसमुक्त बनाउन गरेको प्रयास कथाकारले रमाइलो तर रोचक शैलीमा प्रस्तुत गरेका छन्। पेशलको सक्रियता र सिर्जनशीलता मात्र कथाको केन्द्र होइन, यसले पाठकलाई प्रविधिसम्बन्धी ज्ञान, कम्प्युटर भाइरस र एन्टिभाइरसका कार्यप्रणाली तथा स्क्यान प्रक्रिया बुझ्ने अवसर पनि दिन्छ।

कथाकारले यस कथामा अवलम्बन गरेको कथाशैली साधारण, सरस, सरल र तृतीय पुरुष दृष्टिबिन्दुमा आधारित रैखिक शैली हो, जसले कथालाई सहज र पठनीय बनाएको छ। कथामा धेरै पात्रको प्रयोग गरिएको छैन, तर आवश्यक पात्रहरूको संयोजन र घटनाको प्रवाह प्रभावकारी ढंगले प्रस्तुत गरिएको छ। एन्टिभाइरस गोर्खेले भाइरसमाथि विजय प्राप्त गर्ने प्रक्रियालाई मानवीकरण गरेर चित्रण गरिएको छ—जसमा भाइरसलाई खुट्टाले थिच्ने, दाहा प्रहार गर्ने, सिङ र रुखका बोक्रा लगाएको अनुहार देखाउने जस्ता दृश्यहरू समावेश छन्। यसरी एन्टिभाइरसको मानवीकरण र सक्रियता कथा रोचक र जीवन्त बनाएको छ।

थापाले यस कथामा प्राविधिक विषयवस्तुलाई केवल विज्ञानकै दृष्टिले नभई साहित्यिक शैलीमा पनि प्रस्तुत गरेका छन्। कम्प्युटर भाइरसका प्रकार, तिनका प्रभाव र त्यसबाट कम्प्युटरलाई जोगाउने उपायलाई कथा मार्फत प्रभावकारी र सहज ढंगले देखाइएको छ। यसले पाठकलाई प्राविधिक ज्ञानका साथै मनोरञ्जन पनि प्रदान गर्दछ। समग्रमा, कथाको शैली, पात्रचित्रण, घटनाको प्रवाह र प्रविधिसम्बन्धी ज्ञानवर्द्धक प्रस्तुति मेरो दृष्टिमा अत्यन्तै प्रभावकारी, रोचक र शिक्षाप्रद रहेको छ।

८. कथामा पेशल र सतपालमध्ये कसको मुख्य भूमिका रहेको छ, तर्कसहित आफ्नो प्रतिक्रिया व्यक्त गर्नुहोस् ।

यस कथाका रचयिता बखतबहादुर थापा नेपाली साहित्यमा सामाजिक यथार्थवादी, प्रगतिवादी र समसामयिक दृष्टिकोण भएका कथाकार हुन्। उनले आफ्नो आख्यान विधामा प्राविधिक र कम्प्युटर सम्बन्धी विषयवस्तुलाई समेटेर ज्ञानवर्द्धक र मनोरञ्जक कथाहरू सिर्जना गर्ने कला राखेका छन्। यस कथामा लेखकले सिर्जनशील सोचाइ भएका पात्रमार्फत कम्प्युटर प्रविधि र एन्टिभाइरसको कार्यप्रणालीलाई रोचक तर स्पष्ट शैलीमा प्रस्तुत गरेका छन्। कथाको प्रमुख पात्र पेशल हो, जो कम्प्युटर प्रविधिज्ञ र इन्जिनियर हो। उसले केही गरेर देखाऊँ भन्ने स्वभावका कारण गोर्खे नामक एन्टिभाइरस निर्माण गरेको छ।

सतपालको भाइरसले ग्रसित कम्प्युटर मर्मत गर्न गएको पेशलले आफैले बनाएको गोर्खे एन्टिभाइरसको सिडी निकालेर कम्प्युटरमा इन्स्टल गर्छ। त्यसपछि हार्डडिस्कमा रहेका सबै फाइलहरू स्क्यान गरी भाइरसको पहिचान गर्छ। स्क्यानिङको क्रममा भेटिएका पाँच प्रकारका भाइरसलाई एन्टिभाइरसले नियन्त्रणमा लिन्छ र आवश्यक मर्मत कार्य गर्छ। मर्मत गर्न नसकिने फाइल वा फोल्डरलाई गोर्खे एन्टिभाइरसले पेशललाई डिलिट गर्न सुझाव दिन्छ। यसरी पेशल र उसको सिर्जना गरिएको एन्टिभाइरसको संयुक्त प्रयासले कम्प्युटरलाई पूर्णरूपमा भाइरसमुक्त बनाउँछ।

कथाकारले पेशल पात्रको माध्यमबाट पाठकलाई भाइरस के हो, यसको कति प्रकार छन्, विभिन्न भाइरसले कम्प्युटरमा कस्तो असर पार्छन्, र एन्टिभाइरसले कसरी यसबाट बचाउँछ भन्ने प्राविधिक जानकारी रोचक र सरल शैलीमा बुझाउन सफल भएका छन्। यस कथाले प्रविधिसम्बन्धी विषयलाई केवल सूचनात्मक नभई कथानक र पात्रमार्फत रोचक र जीवंत ढंगले प्रस्तुत गरेको छ। यस प्रकार, कथाले पाठकलाई कम्प्युटर र प्राविधिक ज्ञानबर्द्धक अनुभव प्रदान गर्दै मनोरञ्जन पनि दिन्छ।

९. समीक्षात्मक उत्तर लेख्नुहोस् :

(क) 'मानिस सिर्जनशील प्राणी हो । यस भनाइलाई कथाका आधारमा पुष्टि गर्नुहोस् :

यस कथाका रचयिता बखतबहादुर थापा नेपाली साहित्यमा सामाजिक यथार्थवादी, प्रगतिवादी र समसामयिक दृष्टिकोण भएका कथाकार हुन्। उनले आफ्नो आख्यान विधामा प्राविधिक र कम्प्युटर सम्बन्धी विषयवस्तुलाई समेटेर रोचक, ज्ञानवर्द्धक र मनोरञ्जक कथाहरू सिर्जना गर्ने कला राखेका छन्। यस कथामा लेखकले कम्प्युटर स्क्यानसम्बन्धी विषयवस्तु प्रस्तुत गर्दा भावनात्मक र काल्पनिक बुट्टा भरी आख्यानीकरण गरेका छन्। कथाको शैली सरल, सरस र सुगठित छ, जसले पाठकलाई प्राविधिक ज्ञान सजिलै बुझ्न सहयोग पुर्‍याउँछ।

कथाको प्रमुख पात्र पेशल सिर्जनात्मक, आविष्कारशील र प्रविधिसम्बन्धी चिन्तन भएको व्यक्तित्वको मालिक हो। उसले केही गरेर देखाऊँ भन्ने दृढ इच्छाले गोर्खे नामक एन्टिभाइरस निर्माण गरेको छ। सतपालको भाइरसग्रसित कम्प्युटर मर्मत गर्न पुगेको पेशलले आफैंले बनाएको एन्टिभाइरस गोर्खेको सिडी निकालेर कम्प्युटरमा इन्स्टल गर्छ। त्यसपछि हार्डडिस्कका सबै फाइलहरू स्क्यान गरी भाइरस पत्ता लगाउँछ। स्क्यानिङको क्रममा पाँच प्रकारका भाइरस भेटिन्छन्। यी भाइरसबाट सङ्क्रमित फाइलहरू मर्मत गरिन्छ भने मर्मत गर्न नसकिने फाइल र फोल्डरलाई एन्टिभाइरसले डिलिट गर्न सुझाव दिन्छ। यसरी पेशल र उसको सिर्जना गरिएको एन्टिभाइरसको संयुक्त प्रयासले कम्प्युटरलाई पूर्णरूपमा भाइरसमुक्त बनाउँछ।

थापाले यस कथामा मानिस सिर्जनशील प्राणी हो भन्ने सन्देशलाई प्रमुख रूपमा उजागर गरेका छन्। पेशलले आफ्नो बुद्धि, सिर्जनात्मक क्षमता र प्रविधि ज्ञानको प्रयोग गरेर नयाँ एन्टिभाइरस निर्माण गरेको छ। यसले केवल कम्प्युटर सुरक्षित बनाउँदैन, पाठकलाई पनि सिर्जनात्मक सोचको महत्त्व र आविष्कारशीलताका महत्व बुझाउँछ। कथाले विज्ञान, प्रविधि र रचनात्मकतालाई साहित्यिक शैलीसँग जोडेर रोचक तर ज्ञानवर्द्धक प्रस्तुति दिएको छ। यसरी कथाकार बखतबहादुर थापाले पेशल पात्रमार्फत मानिसलाई सिर्जनशील, प्रतिभाशाली र ज्ञान प्रयोग गरेर समस्याको समाधान गर्न सक्ने प्राणीको रूपमा पुष्टि गरेका छन्।

(ख) कम्प्युटरलाई भाइरसमुक्त बनाउनका लागि प्रविधिज्ञ पेशल र एन्टिभाइरस गोर्खेले गरेका काम के के हुन् ?

यस कथाका रचयिता बखतबहादुर थापा नेपाली साहित्यमा सामाजिक यथार्थवादी, प्रगतिवादी र समसामयिक दृष्टिकोण भएका कथाकार हुन्। उनी आफ्नो आख्यान विधामा प्राविधिक र कम्प्युटर सम्बन्धी विषयवस्तुहरूलाई समेटेर पाठकलाई ज्ञानवर्द्धक र मनोरञ्जक कथा प्रस्तुत गर्न सक्षम छन्। यस कथामा लेखकले सिर्जनशील सोचाइ भएका पात्रमार्फत कम्प्युटर र एन्टिभाइरसको कार्यप्रणालीलाई रोचक र जीवंत शैलीमा चित्रण गरेका छन्।

कथाको प्रमुख पात्र पेशल एक प्रविधिज्ञ र कम्प्युटर इन्जिनियर हो। उसमा केही गरेर देखाऊँ भन्ने आत्मविश्वास र सिर्जनशील स्वभाव छ। यसै उद्देश्यले उसले गोर्खे नामक एन्टिभाइरस निर्माण गरेको हो। सतपालको भाइरसले ग्रसित कम्प्युटर मर्मत गर्न पुगेको पेशलले आफैले बनाएको एन्टिभाइरसको सिडी कम्प्युटरमा इन्स्टल गरी स्क्यान सुरु गर्छ। हार्डडिस्कमा रहेका सबै फाइलहरूलाई स्क्यान गर्दा पाँच प्रकारका भाइरस भेटिन्छन्। यी भाइरसबाट सङ्क्रमित फाइलहरू मर्मत गरिन्छ भने मर्मत हुन नसकेका फाइल र फोल्डरलाई एन्टिभाइरसले पेशललाई डिलिट गर्न सुझाव दिन्छ।

कथामा विशेष आकर्षण एन्टिभाइरस गोर्खे र भाइरसबीचको मानवीकरण गरिएको संघर्ष हो। गोर्खे एन्टिभाइरस जुरुक्क उठेर भाइरसको मुखमा खुट्टोले थिच्न खोज्छ, तर भाइरसले खुट्टै टोकिदिन्छ। यसपछि गोर्खेले दाहा प्रयोग गरी कुहिनाबाट भाइरसको टाउकामा प्रहार गर्छ। टाउकोमा प्रहार भएपछि भाइरस मानेको जस्तो देखिन्छ र अर्को भाइरस त्यसबाट डराएर बोल्न थाल्छ। यस प्रकार एन्टिभाइरस गोर्खे र भाइरसबीच एकअर्कामाथि विजय प्राप्त गर्न संघर्ष हुन्छ।

यस कथाले स्पष्ट देखाउँछ कि कम्प्युटरलाई भाइरसमुक्त बनाउन पेशल र उसको सिर्जना गरिएको एन्टिभाइरस गोर्खेले कति सशक्त र समर्पित प्रयास गर्छन्। कथामा प्रविधिक विषयवस्तु मात्र नभई एन्टिभाइरस र भाइरसको मानवीकरण गरिएको संघर्षले कथा रोचक बनाएको छ। पाठकले कम्प्युटरमा देखिने भाइरस, त्यसको प्रकार, असर र त्यसबाट बच्ने उपाय सरल र रमाइलो शैलीमा बुझ्न सक्छ। यसरी पेशल र गोर्खेको संयुक्त प्रयासले कम्प्युटरलाई पूर्णरूपमा सुरक्षित र भाइरसमुक्त बनाउँछ।

१०. दिइएको अनुच्छेद पढी सोधिएका प्रश्नको उत्तर दिनुहोस् :

(क) कथा भनेको के हो?
कथा भनेको जीवनका वास्तविक वा काल्पनिक घटनाहरूको क्रमबद्ध प्रस्तुति हो, जसले जीवनको कुनै महत्वपूर्ण पक्ष, अनुभव वा घटना पाठकसम्म पुर्‍याउँछ।

(ख) कथामा कति प्रकारका पात्र हुन्छन्?
कथामा मुख्य रूपमा दुई प्रकारका पात्र हुन्छन्—
१. मानवीय पात्र: जो मानवका रूपमा उपस्थित हुन्छन्।
२. मानवेत्तर पात्र: जो मानव नभए पनि कथा भित्र मानवीय गुण बोकेको हुन्छ, जस्तै जनावर, वस्तु वा कल्पनिक प्राणी।

(ग) प्रथम पुरुष दृष्टिबिन्दु भएका कथामा कस्ता पदको प्रयोग गरिन्छ?
प्रथम पुरुष दृष्टिबिन्दु भएका कथामा कथावाचक आफ्नै अनुभव र क्रियाकलाप प्रस्तुत गर्न ‘म’ र ‘हामी’ जस्ता सर्वनाम प्रयोग गर्छ।

(घ) कथाका तत्त्व के–के हुन्?
कथाका मुख्य तत्त्वहरू हुन्:

• कथानक: घटनाहरूको सिलसिला र क्रम।

• पात्र: घटनामा सहभागी व्यक्ति वा तत्व।

• परिवेश: समय, स्थान र सामाजिक–सांस्कृतिक पृष्ठभूमि।

• दृष्टिबिन्दु: कथावाचकले कथा हेर्ने दृष्टिकोण।

• भाषा र शैली: कथालाई सरल, रोचक र बुझ्न सजिलो बनाउने माध्यम।

• सारवस्तु: कथाले दिन खोजेको मुख्य सन्देश वा अर्थ।

११. दिइएको अनुच्छेद पढी चारओटा बुँदा टिप्नुहोस् र एक तृतीयांशमा सार लेख्नुहोस् :

असफलता नै सफलताको प्रेरक

अनुच्छेदमा भएको शब्दसङ्ख्या : २२८
एक तृतीयांशमा हुनु पर्ने शब्दसङ्ख्या : ७६
एक तृतीयांशमा भएको शब्दसङ्ख्या : ७६

व्याकरण

१. दिइएको अनुच्छेदमा प्रयुक्त प्रत्येक कारकका एक एकओटा उदाहरण टिप्नुहोस् र ती कारकलाई सङ्केत गर्ने विभक्ति पनि टिप्नुहोस् :

२. तल तालिकामा दिइएका वाक्यमा कारकका सरल र तिर्यक् रूप उदाहरणका रुपमा गाढा अक्षरमा दिइँएका छन् । मूल पाठबाट कारकका सरल र तिर्यक् रुपका अन्य पाँच पाँचओटा उदाहरण टिप्नुहोस् :

४. पाठको पहिलो अनुच्छेद पढी कर्ता, कर्म र सम्प्रदान कारक जनाउने पद टिप्नुहोस् ।

५. उपयुक्त विभक्तिको प्रयोग गरी खाली ठाउँ भर्नुहोस् :

७. दिइएको अनुच्छेद शुद्ध गरी पुनर्लेखन गर्नुहोस् :