Scaling and Sociometric Techniques

A scale is a set of symbols or numerals so constructed that the symbols or numerals can be assigned by rule to the individuals (or their behaviors) to whom the scale is applied, the assignment is indicated by the individual's possession of whatever the scale is supposed to measure. As a test, a scale is a measuring instrument.

Unobtrusive Measure and Participant Observation

There is an advantage to the analysis of existing statistics. Such a mode of observation avoids one of the inherent problems of most social research methods: the effect of the study on that which is being studied. Clearly, analyzing suicide statistics has no influence whatever on the suicides themselves, whereas, by comparison, interviewing someone who was standing on the top of a tall tower or sitting with his head in a gas oven might conceivably influence whether or not the suicide occurred.

In recent years, Eugen Webb and his colleague are drawn attention to a variety of unobtrusive measures: methods for observing and measuring social phenomena while having little or no impact on that which is being measured. These social scientists have shown that scientific ingenuity is almost limitless.

Unobtrusive Measure

Unobtrusive measures, however, involve the use of non-reactive sources, independent of the presence of the researcher, and include documentary evidence, physical evidence, and archival analysis. The term archive derives from the ancient Greek action, which means a house that is the residence of the superior magistrates, the archons, those that command. This house was where official documents were stored and where the archons acted as both guardians and interpreters of the documents. Here, the principle was created that archives require that documents are stored in one place.

These archives exist in a wide variety of formats and can consist of files, maps, drawings, films, sound recordings, and photographs. While libraries tend to provide access to published materials, archives hold unique unpublished records. But, as Sleeman (2002) points out, with the growth of electronic environments such as the Internet, what is "unique" and "published" or "unpublished" is increasingly blurred. Web pages, for example, can contain links to many other sites or pages, challenging the notion of a document as an integral and independent record.

As we have seen, interactive measures carry with them various inherent problems, such as the dangers of interviewer bias, the possibility of research tools of questionable. Unobtrusive measures, because they are dealing with "dead" data, in principle, are unlikely to face the risk of reactive measurement effects.

But, as we shall see, unobtrusive measures pose other risks if used on their own. Some materials, for example, tend to survive better than others, so their representativeness is open to question. To ensure reliability, it is often prudent to use unobtrusive measures in conjunction with other approaches.

Types of Unobtrusive Measures

In this section, we will look at various types of unobtrusive measures and how they can be of value to the researcher.

1. Physical measures
From the prehistoric cave paintings of early man to the Great Wall of China, medieval cathedrals, or the discarded fast-food containers of modern times, human beings have left behind physical evidence of their existence. According to Webb et al ., (1966), these physical or trace measures can be divided into four broad categories: natural and controlled accretion measures, and natural and controlled erosion measures.

2. Document: running records
Documentsaresomeofthemost frequently used unobtrusive measures and include a wide variety of organizational and institutional documents, and state financial, political, and legal records.

3. Document: episodic records
In contrast to running records that tend to be in the public domain, episodic records are discontinuous and tend to be private. Hence, they are often more difficult to access. Webb et al ., (1966) suggest three main classes: sales records, industrial and institutional records, and personal documents. To these, we can add visual and mass media records, and institutional investigations.

4. The new digital archives
So far, we have looked at quite traditional forms of unobtrusive measures, many of which include the collection of documents (of various descriptions), usually located in one place. But because of problems of access, many document archives are under-utilized by researchers. After all, if the archive that you need is hundreds or even thousands of kilometers away, you are going to have to do some serious personal planning to see it. The growth of the Internet and the World Wide Web, however, is changing this. It is also worth considering another new and digital source of information closed-circuit television, as yet another modern source of unobtrusive information.

Participant Observation

Participant observation is qualitative and derives from the work of social anthropology earlier in the twentieth century. Its emphasis is on discovering the meanings that people attach to their actions. By contrast, structured observation (non-participant) is quantitative and is more concerned with the frequency of those actions.

Participant observation is where the researcher attempts to participate fully in the lives and activities of subjects and thus becomes a member of their group, organization, or community. This enables the researcher to share their experiences by not merely observing what is happening but also feeling it. Participant observation often requires months or years of intensive work because the researcher needs to become accepted as a natural part of the culture to ensure that the observations are of the natural phenomenon.

Participant observation is a research method most closely associated with ethnographic methodology and has its origins in British anthropology and the Chicago School of sociology. The central intent of this method is to generate data through observing and listening to people in their natural setting and to discover their social meanings and interpretations of their own activities. Part of this process is the reporting of the researcher's own experiences, feelings, fears, anxieties, and social meanings when engaged with people in the field. With participant observation, the researcher becomes a member of the group being researched and so begins to understand their situation by experiencing it. The researcher becomes "immersed" in the research setting to share and experience people's lives to learn about their symbolic world. This symbolic framework was first developed within a school of sociology known as symbolic interactionism.

Participant observation can be contrasted with research using a questionnaire where it is often not possible to verify whether people are telling the truth or if their perceptions of their own behavior or attitudes are accurate. In contrast, with participant observation, it can be possible to interpret some of the subtleties of meaning in the data. Most organizations, for example, and particularly large ones, will contain a variety of social groups, each of which has, to a certain extent, its own norms, standards, attitudes, and even culture and language. Contrast the cultures of those who work in the human resources department with those who work in security. Working amongst groups may reveal a whole set of norms and attitudes that would simply not emerge from more traditional research methods.

Methods of Participant Observation

A variety of methods are common in qualitative measurement. In fact, the methods are largely limited by the imagination of the researcher. Here we discuss a few of the more common methods.

1. Direct observation
Direct observation occurs when the observer is physically present and personally monitors what takes place. This approach is very flexible because it allows the observer to react to and report subtle aspects of events and behaviors as they occur. S/he is also free to shift places, change the focus of the observation, or concentrate on unexpected events if they occur.

2.Indirect observation
Indirect observation occurs when the recording is done by mechanical, photographic, or electronic means. For example, a special camera that takes one frame every second may be mounted in a department of a large store to study customer and employee movement. Indirect observations less flexible than direct observation but is also much less biasing and maybe a less erratic inaccuracy. Electronic recording devices, which have improved in quality and declined in cost, are being used more frequently in observation research.

3. Practitioner researcher
A practitioner-researcher is someone who undertakes research within and often on behalf of his or her organization. As a researcher, then, they are in an ideal position to understand the culture, strengths, and weakness of the organization, as well as its developing needs. If the research is sponsored by the organization, and especially if sponsored by senior management, then the practitioner-researcher may often have good access to records and other information.

Schedule

The scheduling method is one more important method for the study of social problems. This method is in many respects close to the questionnaire method but the major difference between the two is that where as in the questionnaire method there is none to assist the respondent in filling in the questionnaires. In this method, there is an investigator who assists the informants and gives them necessary clarifications as and when required. Two methods, in many respects, are different in so far as the collection of data is concerned. A schedule is a tool or device for obtaining answers to a set of questions from the respondents or informants. The researcher or the interviewer generally fills it in himself, who sits with the informant face to face, and fills up the information supplied by him on the prescribed schedule. Both questionnaires and schedules are very similar, but they also differ in some respects. A questionnaire is sent to the respondents by mail, whereas a schedule is used directly in interviews.

A schedule is like a questionnaire, which contains a set of questions. These questions are required to be replied to by the respondent with the help of an investigator. The schedule is the name usually applied to a set of questions that are asked and filled in by the investigator in a face-to-face situation with another person.

Types of Schedules

Schedules are of different types, though the aim of all the schedules is to collect data.

1. Observation schedule

This is a type of schedule in which questions are put on a specific topic about which investigator wants to collect data and information. In this case, the respondent can be an individual or group of individuals, and the schedule is filled under specific conditions. Many times, this method is adopted to verify the information already collected.

2. Rating schedule

In social research rating schedules are used when information is to be collected about attitudes, opinions, preferences, inhibitions and other like elements and their value is to be assessed and value of each is required to be measured. These prove very useful when factors that are responsible for measuring a phenomenon are to be measured. Different scales of measurement are to be constructed for evaluation.

3. Document schedule

In this schedule whole study is based on certain schedules e.g. studies that deal with the writing of history etc. With the help of these documents, certain questions are asked about the life history of a person, and based on replies received efforts are made to construct life history (Kumar, 1997: 55).

4. Evaluation schedule

The nature and complexity of the institution decide the size of the schedule. With the help of this schedule, it becomes both easy as well as possible to study both traditional as well as immediate problems of an institution. These schedules are used to gather information about some institutions or agencies. They help us to study their immediate problems.

5. Interview schedule

The interview schedule is used for testing as well as collecting data as well as for the collection of supplementary data. The information takes the schedule with him and interviews the respondent and fills in the forms. Usually in this method, the interviewer asks certain standardized questions.

Research Questionnaire

The content of the questions is the most important element of the construction of a questionnaire. While the order of questions may influence access to information, the content of questions will lead to the type of information sought in the study. Questionnaires are constructed systematically. The process goes through several interrelated steps.

1. The Dichotomous format

The dichotomous format is actually any question that can be answered with a dichotomous response: true/false, yes/no, agree/ disagree, hot/cold, and so on. The dichotomous format is widely used in social science questionnaires. The format is very flexible and can be used in a great many different ways. It is frequently used in classrooms as a device to find out how much of the material presented has been learned by the students. Personality inventories typically request dichotomous responses, usually in a checklist form (where checks indicate "true" and blanks indicate "false").

2. Multi-choice format

The primary use of multiple-choice formats in social science is probably in the construction of tests of ability and aptitude. Such well-known tests as the GRE (Graduate Record Examination) and SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) are two examples of a large number of such tests. Aptitude test answers are always known ahead of time and thus responses are coded as correct-incorrect.

Multiple-choice questions contain more" information" than do dichotomous questions. This is true because of "guessing." In a true-false question, one can get the correct answer half of the time by guessing. In a multiple-choice question with four possible answers, one can get the correct answer only a quarter of the time by guessing.

3. Fill-in-the-blank type format

The fill-in-the-blank format is closely related to the above two types of formats, and in sore ways is a natural extension. Suppose, for example, we ask a question such as, "Who was president of the United States when the Interstate Freeway system was initiated?" The format is a fill-in-the-blank type although it resembles the multiple choice in that if one knew the names of presidents of this century the task is to choose among them.

The amount of information collected per question is a function of the number of possible responses. Thus the amount of information in a fill-in-the-blank question is greater than a multiple-choice question and a multiple-choice question requests more" information than a dichotomous question. This is true because guessing an answer becomes less likely as the number of possible increases. In some preliminary studies, we carried out it was found that one fill-in-the-blank question had as much "information" as five dichotomous questions. This means those fewer fill-in-the-questions are needed to roach the same degree of reliability.

4.Matching format

In presenting a matching task format, informants are normally presented with two lists that are linked in some way but are scrambled in presentation. The task is to match items from one list with items on another list. For example, historic figures might be matched to their birth dates. This format is frequently used in classroom test situations since it is easy to make up questions in a short time. It is not frequently used informal research situations. There are probably some situations in which it would be very useful.

5. Estimation format

The use of estimation procedures is frequently overlooked partly because in the cases where they might be used one could measure the variable under consideration directly and not elicit the information from informants. For example, if one were interested in how tall people are, the natural thing would be actually to measure their height. However, estimates of height or distance are of value precisely because they can be validated and informant accuracy can be assessed. Thus estimates can serve as benchmarks to compare different data collection techniques.

6. The pick N format

In various guises, this format has already been covered. For example, the triad task of picking "the item most different from the other two" is a pick one of three-type format. Multiple-choice questions are a pick one of n (usually four) types. In early sociometric studies, it was typical to ask subjects to pick their three best friends from a class list. Nowadays in sociometric studies, we strongly recommend the use of complete rank ordering of preferences if at all pick possible. about half In cases the stimuli, where this instead is not possible, it is probably information best to is contained in such a split than in the choosing three. More cases where one picks only a few items.

Interview in Research

The interview is verbal questioning. As a research tool or as a method of data collection, the interview is different from general interviewing with regard to its preparation, construction and execution. This difference is that: research interview is prepared and executed in a systematic way it is controlled by the researcher to avoid bias and distortion, and it is related to a specific research question and a specific purpose.

Bingham and Moore (1924) have described the interview as "a conversation with a purpose". This definition is too broad to be accepted in the research field because the purpose (of interview) could be therapeutic, psychiatric, selection for a job, selection for admission to professional institution publicity of a film actor, and so on. In the research field, Lindzey Gardner (1968) has defined an interview as "a two-person conversation, initiated by the interviewer for the specific purpose of obtaining research-relevant information and focused by him on the content specified by the research objectives of description and explanation". In the research interview, thus, the interviewer asks specific questions about research objectives/ criteria and the respondent restricts his answers to specific questions posed by the interviewer.

Types of Interview

Once the researcher has determined that surveying is the appropriate data collection approach, various means may be used to secure information from individuals. A researcher can conduct a survey by personal interview, telephone, mail, computer, or a combination of these.

1. Personal interviewing

A personal interview (i.e ., face-to-face communication) is a two-way conversation initiated by an interviewer to obtain information from a participant. The differences in the roles of interviewer and participant are pronounced. They are typically strangers and the interviewer generally controls the topics and patterns of discussion. The consequences of the event are usually insignificant for the participant. The participant is asked to provide information and has little hope of receiving any immediate or direct benefit from this cooperation.

2. Focus group interview

The use of focus groups allows for a sample of respondents to be interviewed and then re-interviewed so that attitudes and behaviors can be studied over a period of time (a longitudinal survey). An advantage of focus groups is that they allow for a variety of views to emerge, while group dynamics can often allow for the stimulation of new perspectives. Indeed, sometimes these new perspectives may provide the basis for a survey.

Focus groups are increasingly used in the political arena and are also a common tool in market research. Within a business or organization, they can be useful in engaging the commitment of people, especially in circumstances where there is cynicism or hostility towards the research theme.

3. Telephone interview

The telephone can help arrange personal interviews and screen large populations for unusual types of participants. Studies have also shown that making prior notification calls can improve the response rates of mail surveys. However, the telephone interview makes its greatest contribution in survey work as a unique mode of communication to collect information from participants.

Of the advantages that telephone interviewing offers, probably none ranks higher than its moderate cost one study reports that sampling and data collection costs for telephone surveys can run from 45 to 64 percent lower than comparable personal interviews. Much of the savings come from cuts in travel costs and administrative savings from training and supervision. When calls are made from a single location, the researcher may use fewer yet more skilled interviewers. Telephones are especially economical when callbacks to maintain probability sampling are involved and participants are widely scattered. Long-distance service options make it possible to interview nationally at a reasonable cost.

Survey in Research

The word survey has been derived from the words 'Sur' or 'Sor' and 'Veeir' or 'Veoir', which mean 'over' and 'see' respectively. Therefore, the literal meaning of a survey is to take over something from a high place but it has come to be used as a term with the specific connotation of its own. Although the term is used for the technique of investigation by direct observation of phenomena or collection of information through interviews, questionnaires, etc ., it is currently being used in those investigations also where published data is used, e.g ., a survey of joint-stock enterprise in Nepal. Some writers still believe the term survey can be applicable only when direct contact is made, and does not include any study from the libraries or archives.

General Components of Survey Research

A survey often begins by identifying several individuals considered representative of the group to be studied (what is referred to as a sample) and deciding what questions they should be asked. The survey can be used to test accepted explanations or theories, and to develop new ones. They can lend support to a theory by indicating that a relationship that is postulated actually occurs among the group studied, or they can throw doubt on the applicability of a theory by offering little evidence that the relationships suggested by the theory actually exist. If the sample is statistically representative of a larger population, then the findings can offer greater support, or greater denial, of the theory.

1. Modes of eliciting information
There are two primary modes of doing a survey: using questionnaires or giving interviews. Both methods are based on a set of questions. In the questionnaire, these questions are written down and the respondent reads them and gives written answers. In an interview, the interviewer asks the questions as they are written in an interview schedule and then records the respondent's answers either by writing them down or recording them electronically. Interviews may be face to face, or they may be carried out on the telephone.

2 . Modes of selecting respondents
The first consideration in choosing among them is whether a potential set of respondents will be able to give answers to the types of questions to be asked. The relevant issue here is, what is the appropriate population to which we questions apply? If we are doing a study of farm abandonment, we will probably want to survey farmers, exfarmers, and others who live in rural areas.

Second, it will be important to design a survey, which will be appropriate for this sample. It should include questions, which such a group could and would answer (Fink, 1995a). That is the questions must be presented in language familiar to the sample and phrased so those members of the group will understand them.

Research Proposal

A research proposal is also known as a work plan, prospectus, outline, statement of intent, or draft plan. The proposal tells us what, why, how, where, and to whom the research will be done. It must also show the benefit of doing the search. Many beginning researchers view the proposal as unnecessary work. In actuality, the more inexperienced a researcher is, the more important it is to have a well-planned and adequately documented proposal. The research proposal is essentially a road map, showing clearly the location from which a journey begins, the destinations to be reached, and the method of getting there.

The preparation of a research proposal is an important step in the research process. Many institutions require that a proposal be submitted before any project is approved. The proposal is comparable to the blueprint that the architect prepares before the bids are let and the building commences. The initial draft proposal is subject to modification in the light of the analysis by the student and his or her thesis advisor. Because good research must be carefully planned and systematically carried out, procedures that are improvised from step to step will not suffice. A worthwhile research project is likely to result only from a well-designed proposal.

This format is by no means the only way to structure a proposal but is a fairly standard and generally understood format and one which lends itself particularly well to communicating the design of a qualitative study. However, every university and funding source has its own requirements and preferences regarding proposal structure, and these must take precedence.

Research Hypothesis

The research or scientific hypothesis is a formal affirmative statement predicting a single research outcome, a tentative explanation of the relationship between two or more variables. For the hypothesis to be testable, the variables must be operationally defined. That is, the researcher specifies what operations were conducted, or tests used, to measure each variable. This, the hypothesis focuses the investigation on a definite target and determines what observations or measures, are to be used.

Several years ago the hypothesis was formulated that there is a positive causal relationship between cigarette smoking and the incidence of coronary heart disease (Best & Kahn, 2002: 11). This hypothesis proposed a tentative explanation that led to many studies comparing the incidence of heart disease among cigarette smokers and nonsmokers. As a result of these extensive studies, the medical profession now generally accepts that this relationship has been established.

In the behavioral sciences, the variables may be abstractions that cannot be observed. These variables must be defined operationally by describing some samples of actual behavior that are concrete enough to be observed directly. The relationship between these observable incidents may be deduced as consistent or inconsistent with the consequences of the hypothesis. Thus, the hypothesis may be judged to be probably true or probably false.

A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between neither two nor more variables. Hypotheses are always in declarative sentence form, and they relate, either generally or specifically, variables to variables. There are two criteria for "good" hypotheses and hypothesis statements. They are the same as two of those for problems and problem statements. One, hypotheses are statements about the relations between variables. Two, hypotheses carry clear implications for testing the stated relations. These criteria mean, then, that hypothesis statements contain two or more variables that are measurable or potentially measurable and that they specify how the variables are related. A statement that lacks either or both these characteristics are no hypothesis in the scientific sense of the word.

Theoretical Framework of Hypothesis

There is little doubt that hypotheses are important and indispensable tools of scientific research. There are three main reasons for this belief. One, they are, so to speak, the working instruments of theory. The hypothesis can be deduced from theory and from other hypotheses. If, for instance, we are working on a theory of aggression, we are presumably looking for causes and effects of aggressive behavior. We might have observed cases of aggressive behavior occurring after frustrating circumstances. The theory, then, might include the proposition; Frustration produces aggression. From this broad hypothesis we may deduce more specific hypotheses, such as: To prevent children from reaching goals they find desirable (frustration) will result in their fighting with each other (aggression); if children are deprived of parental love (frustration), they will react in part with aggressive behavior.

The second reason is that hypotheses can be tested and shown to be probably true or probably false. Isolated facts are not tested, as we said before; only relations are tested. Since hypotheses are relational propositions, this is probably the main reason they are used in scientific inquiry. They are, in essence, predictions of the form, "If A, then B," which we set up to test the relation between A and B. We let the facts have a chance to establish the probable truth or falsity of the hypothesis.

Three, hypotheses are powerful tools for the advancement of knowledge because they enable man to get outside himself. Though constructed by man, hypotheses exist, can be tested, and can be shown to be probably correct or incorrect apart from man's values and opinions. This is so important that we venture to say that there would be no science in any complete sense without hypotheses.

Just as important as hypotheses are the problems behind the hypotheses. As Dewey has well pointed out, research usually starts with a problem, with a problematic situation. Dewey says that there is a first and indeterminate situation in which ideas are vague, doubts are raised, and the thinker is perplexed. He further points out that the problem is not enunciated indeed cannot be enunciated until one has experienced such an indeterminate situation.

The indeterminacy, however, must ultimately be removed. Though it is true, as stated earlier, that a researcher may often have only a general and diffuse motion of his problem, sooner or later he has to have a fairly clear idea of what the problem is. Though this statement seems self-evident, one of the most difficult things to do, apparently, is to state one's research problem clearly and completely.

The theoretical framework is the foundation on which the entire thesis is based. It is a logically developed, described, and elaborated network of associations among variables that have been identified through such processes as interviews, observations, and literature survey. These variables are deemed relevant to the problem situation.

The preliminary survey of literature and information provides a solid foundation for developing a theoretical framework. The theoretical framework describes the relationships among the variables, elaborates the theory underlying these relations, and describes the nature and direction of the relationship. A good theoretical framework provides the logical base for developing testable hypotheses. Sekaran identifies five basic components that should be incorporated in any theoretical framework:

1. The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly identified.
2. The discussions should state how two or more variables are related to each other.
3. If the nature and direction of the relationship can be theorized based on the findings from previous research, then there should be an indication in the discussions as to whether the relationships would be positive or negative.
4. There should be a clear explanation of why we would expect these relationships to exist. The arguments could be drawn from the previous research findings.
5. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be given so that the reader can visualize the theorized relationships.

There are two approaches to hypothesis testing. The more established is the classical or sampling-theory approach; the second is known as the Bayesian approach. Classical statistics are found in all of the major statistics books and are widely used in research applications. This approach represents an objective view of probability in which the decision-making rests totally on an analysis of available sampling data. A hypothesis is established; it is rejected or fails to be rejected, based on the sample data collected.

Bayesian statistics are an extension of the classical approach. They also use sampling data for making decisions, but they go beyond them to consider all other available information. This additional information consists of subjective probability estimates stated in terms of degrees of belief. These subjective estimates are based on general experience rather than on specifically collected data. They are expressed as a prior distribution that can be revised after sample information is gathered. The revised estimate, and so on. Various decision rules are established, cost and other estimate scans are introduced, and the expected outcomes of combinations of these elements are used to judge decision alternatives. The Bayesian approach, based on the centuries-old Bayes theorem, has emerged as an alternative hypothesis-testing procedure since the mid-1950s.

Process of Hypothesis Formulation

The formulation of a hypothesis is a central step in good research. It is, therefore, important to give it a great deal of thought. All research problems may ultimately be reduced to the question: "which of a set of alternative means is the most efficient? Once we have the alternative means, many questions can be raised (for each means) about what would constitute evidence that these particular means is the most efficient one among the alternatives. The solution to this question usually is that" Particular means can be accepted as the most efficient among the alternatives under specific conditions.

Hypotheses are not given to us ready-made. This is so especially in social sciences where there has not yet evolved a highly developed theoretical system in many areas of its subject matter affording fruitful bases for hypothesis formulation. As a result, in social sciences at least, a considerable portion of research endeavor is directed understandably toward making hypotheses rather than testing them. Hence, it is to be remembered that research can begin with a well-formulated hypothesis (in the planning stage of the project) or it can come out with a hypothesis is as its end product (at a later stage).

In a classical test of significance, two kinds of hypotheses are used. The null hypothesis is used for testing. It is a statement that no difference exists between the parameter and the statistic being compared to it. A second, alternative hypothesis holds that there has been a change in average days outstanding. The alternative hypothesis is the logical opposite of the null hypothesis.

Frequently, statisticians formulate their hypotheses the exact opposite of what they may want to show. For instance, if we want to show that the students in one school have a higher average IQ than those in another school, we might formulate the hypothesis that there is no difference; the hypothesis u1 = u2. With this hypothesis we know what to expect, but this would not be the case if we formulated the hypothesis u1 > u2, at least not unless we specify the actual difference between u1 and u2.

Formulating a hypothesis for statistical significance follows a relatively well-defined pattern, although authors differ in the number and sequence of steps. One six-stage sequence is as follows:

1. State the null hypothesis
While the researcher is usually interested in testing a hypothesis of change or differences, the null hypothesis (Ho) is always used for statistical testing purposes.

2. Choose the statistical test
To test a hypothesis, one must choose an appropriate statistical test. There are many tests from which to choose, and there are at least four criteria that can be used in choosing a test. One is the power efficiency of the test. A more powerful test provides the same level of significance with a smaller sample than a less powerful test. In addition, in choosing a test, one can consider how the sample is drawn, the nature of the population, and the type of measurement scale used. For instance, some tests are useful only when the sequence of scores is known or when observations are paired. Other tests are appropriate only if the population has certain characteristics; still, other tests are useful only if the measurement scale is interval or ratio.

3. Select the desired level of significance
The choice of the level of significance should be made before we collect the data. The most common level is .05, although .01 is also widely used. Other levels such as .10,. 025, or .001 are sometimes chosen. The exact level to choose is largely determined by how much a risk one is willing to accept and the effect that this choice has on? risk. The larger the a the lower is the B.

4. Compute the calculated difference value
After the data are collected, use the formula for the appropriate significance test to obtain the calculated value.

5. Obtain the critical test value
After we compute the calculated t, F, Z, or another measure, we must look up the critical value in the appropriate table for that distribution. The critical value is the criterion that defines the region of rejection from the region of acceptance of the null hypothesis.

6. Interpret the test
For most tests, if the calculated value is larger than the critical value, we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the alternative hypothesis is supported (although it is by no means proved). If the critical value is larger, we conclude we have a failure to reject the null.

Problem Identification in Research

Once the topic for research is selected, research cannot immediately start unless the specific problem is formulated which can be investigated by the scientific method. It is very necessary to formulate a piece of scientific inquiry before the collection of data. Needless to say, the formulation of inquiry must recognize some difficulty, be it practical or theoretical. It is the difficulty or problem, which guides our search for some order among the facts in terms of which the difficulty is to be, removed. The difficulty may be experienced with some social problem, or with the failure of the theoretical system or prediction. In fact, the formulation of a problem is more important than its solution. However, every problem is not a scientific problem or a research problem. In the matter of problem formulation for research, Merton has distinguished the following three principal components.

1. Originating the questions

The originating question is based on the fundamental objective of the present research. That is to say, what is the specific problem, which a researcher wants to solve? The originating question is the first problem in the formulation of research. The origination question may doubt the existing facts about a problem. It wants to discover new and more decisive facts giving rise to the problem at hand. Some social facts can explain only be in superficial a particular fact, way, and the not problem real. The questions that may be raised at this stage may be fact-finding questions. This shows that all plausible facts may not be the real facts, and all plausible beliefs may also not be necessarily true. The truth-value of these beliefs and facts have to be discovered by research. The origination questions are not, however, uniform. Some questions may be related to concepts, some to facts, some to the existing system, some to empirical validity and some may be related to the whole structure or organization.

2. Rationale of question

It is also necessary to know the reasons behind the question that is raised. That is to say, why is the question being raised at all? If the question is answered, what will be the benefit? In other words, the rationale of the question helps us to distinguish between a valuable and trivial question. If the question helps us to distinguish between a valuable and a trivial question. If the question is found to have any scientific import, the question is considered for an answer, otherwise not. It is also necessary to know whether the question is relevant or not. The relevance may be either theoretical or practical. The answer to the question raised may improve the theoretical knowledge, enlarge the scope of theoretical inquiry, or may lead to a new theoretical construct. The conceptualization and understanding may be made clear by answering such questions; or, some theoretical inconsistencies may be removed from the system of analysis. A new theory may possibly develop and that may be considered in many respects a better one than the existing theory. The old theory may also be proved to be wrong. The suggested answer to be given by research may be instrumental in discovering a new analytical model which can answer any questions, and which is, therefore, broader and better. The answer may maximize the welfare of the whole or a part of the society, cure many diseases or find out some practical solutions to knotty problems. Thus, the question may have either theoretical interest or practical utility. It must not neglect either of these two.

3. Specifying question

The question, which has originated the research, must be specifically and very clearly stated. A broad question may be decomposed into several specific questions, each of which can be answered separately and conveniently by the researcher. In specifying the question, it has to be stated how it would be answered by a particular set of variables or data. For answering a specific question, a particular type of observation becomes essential. However, every concrete situation is not per se strategic. It is what the investigator brings to the situation that makes it strategic. Specific questions can be precisely and successfully answered for the benefit of society. In the final stage of the formulation of the research problem, the general question can be transformed into a series of specific questions to indicate the types of situations that can afford the strategic observations to answer these questions. Needless to add, no solution can be found so long as the questions remain nonspecific and ambiguous. The questions should be simple, pointed, specific, clear, and empirically verifiable. When answers are found to these specific questions, it is possible to find out a solution to the problem.

The first step in the formulation of research is to make the problem-specific, concrete, and objective. The formulation of the topic into a research problem is the first step in a scientific investigation. But unfortunately, there is no standard rule in the matter of formulation of significant questions in a given research area. It is very often the task of a trained, sensitive, experienced, and alert mind. As Cohen and Nagel observe, it is a mark of scientific genius to be sensitive to difficulties where the common people take them easily. The problem must be perceived by the researcher himself. A searching mind remains always dissatisfied with the existing ideas, system, and notions. This growing dissatisfaction is the basis of formulating a research problem.

Topic Selection

The research problem undertaken for the study must be carefully selected. It should not be borrowed. It should spring from the researcher's mind like a plant springing from its own seed. A research problem rightly and rationally selected solves half the problems. The right selection of the topic has unlimited advantages and it boosts the morale of the researcher. A right selection of a research problem helps the researcher to proceed with his work methodically and step by step. This will help the researcher to finish the project within the stipulated time and that too with a minimum cost. The right selection of the topic enables the researcher to get a clear picture of the problem at every stage. It helps him to avoid as far as possible unnecessary modifications, omissions, and additions. The range of potential topics for social research is as broad as the range of social behavior itself. Clarity of thinking at the selection level minimizes confusion at every later stage and ultimately results in the success of the project. Therefore, in the selection of the topic the researcher should take into consideration the following factors:

1. Researcher's interest

The researcher should select a topic in which he is familiar or has in-depth understanding. He should possess a probing attitude, tenacity of spirit, and dedication. These three virtues would bring personal interest to his study.

Sources of Literature Review

Researchers often waste time searching for literature in an unsystematic way. The literature search is an ever-expanding process, for each literature may lead to a new list of sources. Researchers may consider these sources as basic. There are different sources of the literature review. Some of them are enumerated below.

1. Using the online/card catalog

The online (computer) or card catalog in a university or campus library is a listing of all titles the library holds, indexed by author, title, subject, and in many cases keywords (or words in the title). To find the correct subject heading for the topic, consult the Library of Congress Subject Headings. The researcher should become thoroughly acquainted with the university library, the location of its varied facilities, and the services it provides. In addition to the traditional card catalog, many university libraries have computerized their holdings and have placed terminals in various locations for ease of finding books and periodicals.

Library's catalog of holdings may exist, in whole or in part, in some other form besides online. For example, a version or the online catalog may be available on a CD-ROM. Sometimes libraries list only recent works online and catalog holder works with printed files on microfilm or microfiche, bound books, or cards kept in drawers. In some libraries, the main catalog is primarily in the form of cards. Books in a card catalog are usually listed by author, title, and subject. Although author cards, title cards, and subject cards may be arranged alphabetically in a single catalog, many card catalogs are divided into two sections or, more rarely, into three sections. Finally, the library may have special catalogs for publications other than books such as serials or periodicals (e.g ., newspapers, magazines, scholarly journals) or audiovisual materials.

2. Microfiche

The development of microfiche has been one of the most significant contributions to library services by providing economy and convenience of storing and distribution of scholarly materials. A microfiche is a film sheet containing micro-images of printed materials.

3. Super and ultra-fiche

Recent development in the field of microfiche will transform the process of storage, retrieval, and distribution of published materials in libraries. Super microfiche has been developed that contains up to 1,000 pages of printed material in a single 4"x 6" transparent card, the equivalent of two or more books.

4. Books

Different writers have described their ideas and theories in their books. A study of all such books is essential for the researcher to know what people who conducted similar research earlier have said on the subject. Studies of all such work bring greater clarity and avoid duplication of effort. In the absence of such knowledge, a researcher might be wasting his time upon a subject upon which much has already been said.

5. Bibliographies

The first objective of the researcher is the preparation of full preliminary bibliography as practicable. All the sources, published and unpublished, must be recorded before one can make a reasonable selection and whittle them down to a working bibliography. There are bibliographies at many levels: the broadest are bibliographies of bibliographies; next are bibliographies of broad disciplines; last and most narrow are bibliographies of specific fields or subjects. Some bibliographies are annotated, i.e ., they offer a short abstract or description of each book. Others just give basic bibliographical information: author, title, publisher, publication, place, and date.

6. Biographies

Information on living persons is collected in Current Biography, The International who's who, and who's who in the World. American National Biography, Dictionary of Canadian Biography, Dictionary of National Biography for Great Britain, and Webster's New Biographical Dictionary are some examples.

7. Encyclopedias

Encyclopedias define a field's key concepts and provide information on the major leaders in that field. These serve as a storehouse of information and usually contain well-rounded discussion and selected bibliographies that are prepared by specialists. Encyclopedias are arranged alphabetically by subject, and for each field of research, they present a critical evaluation and summary of the work that has been done. These days Encyclopedia Britannica and Encarta are available in CD form in local markets too.

8. UN Publications

The many special UN publications are listed in the annual Catalog of United Nations Publications. The United Nations and its sister organizations and other multilateral organizations carry studies in various areas, and such organizations have several publications, which are of great value to the researchers especially of social sciences. In Nepal, TU Library has a UN depository section, where publications of
various multilateral organizations are available. In addition, researchers can get information through the website of the UN from the Internet on a computer.

9. Handbooks

Handbooks and annual reviews contain an edited collection of articles that provide an authoritative summary of a specific topic, including evaluations of theory and research. A few known handbooks are the handbook of qualitative research, the handbook of psychology, the MLA handbook for writers of research papers, the handbook for focus group research, and so on.

10. Journals

Information about new ideas and developments often appears in journals long before it appears in books. There are many journals in management and in other closely related areas that are the best sources for reports on recent research studies. Such journals give much more up-to-date treatment to current questions in required areas than books possibly can. They also publish articles of temporary, local or limited interest that never appear in book form. The journals of proper dates are the best sources for determining contemporary opinion and status, present or past.

11. Abstracts

Abstracts provide a summary of the research reports done in different fields. Psychological abstracts (Washington: American Psychological Association) and Sociological abstracts (New York: Sociological abstract, INC) are the two common examples of abstracts. These abstracts are useful sources of up-to-date information for researchers. In an abstract, besides a summary, researchers get all the relevant information such as the title of the research report, name of the author, and the journal pagination information such as the title of the research report, name of the author, and the journal pagination information, etc ., regarding the research article. The only limitation of abstracts is that they fail to satisfy those researchers who desire detailed information regarding the methodology and results of the research articles.

12. Indexes

Once you have found an article that interests you, another way to expand your search and locate other relevant articles is to use the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI). Citation indexes are based on the idea that published research in an area includes two previously published papers, which provided the basis for the New work. Therefore, if you can locate an important only article in the field, you should be able to identify later articles that side the sources.

13. Computer searches

So far we have mentioned a number of tools that you can use to identify literature in your field. If you have a topic that combines several different concepts, this type of search can be especially time-consuming. If your search is complex, conducting your search on a computer in CDROM (compact-disk read-only-memory) or online database will make your task much easier.

Because many different CD-ROM and online databases are available, there are also many different search techniques. Most libraries that have these available will also have handouts or brochures on how to search the database, or you may ask a reference librarian. In beginning your search, you need to choose a database relevant to your subject and then structure your search strategy so that you will obtain the most relevant citations and abstracts.

14. Webography

Since the Web was introduced to the world in 1992, Web technology has been seeking ways to make the contents more accessible. The dynamic nature of the Web, its lighting growth rate, the ephemeral nature of some Web pages, the different skill levels and interests of users, and the lack of standards make this an enormous challenge. Trends indicate that the Web will continue to grow and that we will continue to apply new technologies to tapping the information available on this vast and unique resource. Already some search engines are better able to identify key resources. Efforts are underway to adopt standardized meta-tags included in the coding to describe the contents of Web pages. Some search engines are using expert systems to learn more about the information requestor. This is already being used extensively to target advertisements and is being used more frequently to "select" from among several options the information source that will be delivered to the requestor. More efforts are being made to index a larger portion of the web content but, at the same time, efforts are also underway to improve the relevancy of the results delivered for anyone search.

15. Theses/Dissertations

The terms "dissertation" and "thesis" are sometimes used interchangeably in everyday academic conversations. Most universities in North America call a Ph.D. a dissertation and the master's thesis, while most British universities call the Ph.D. the thesis and the master the dissertation.

The universities that award the authors their doctoral and master's degrees usually preserve theses/dissertations. Doctoral theses/ dissertations are the results of original research, so they can be an important resource in the field of that very subject. The advantage of looking at a thesis/ dissertation based on social research is that the method-how the study was done-is usually delineated in quite a lot of detail. Theses/Dissertations may even refer to the problems encountered in trying to accomplish the aims of the study (such problems are rarely reported on in an article). Copies of most master's theses/ dissertations and doctoral theses/ dissertations written in Nepal are sent to the Central Library of Tribhuvan University.

16. Newspapers and Pamphlets

Many articles of particular interest to a researcher may be located through pamphlets and newspapers. Current newspapers provide up-to-date information on speeches, seminars, conferences, new trends, and a number of other topics. Old newspapers, which preserve a record of past events, movements, and ideas, are particularly useful in historical inquiries.

17. Government documents

Government documents are a rich source of information. They include statistical data, research studies, official reports, laws, and economic surveys, and other material that are not always available elsewhere. These are available in national, regional, zonal, district level as well as local level organizations.

18. Monographs

Monographs are also major sources of information on ongoing research. The research monograph is a research report covering a fairly large research project of a single subject. It is usually a form of communication among scholars in a particular field, and as such, has a limited audience. Since the monograph is usually longer than an article but shorter than a book, publication of the research monograph is usually supported by a university press, a bureau of business research, a central bureau of statistics, a research foundation, or the author himself.

19. Term paper and Assignments

The term paper is an academic report, which may have one or several objectives. Generally, it is based on a library investigation of some topic and rarely involves laboratory/ fieldwork. In institutions, where both opportunity and encouragement make it possible, the student may make a field study of a problem in one or more business firms.

The term paper is short enough so that it does not require an appendix common to large expositions. Ten to thirty pages (typed in double spaced) covers the range of most papers. The term paper is used to acquaint the student with systematic, careful, and accurate gathering and presentation of information.

20. Professional paper

The professional paper is directed toward either a basic research problem or an applied research problem. The applied research report solves an operating problem for a particular company at a particular time. The professional paper, if it does this at all, is such that the problem is one that faces many companies and the solution presented may be adopted by many companies.

21. Reviews

Reviews are short articles that give brief information regarding the work done in a particular area over a period of time. Reviews are commonly published in journals, yearbooks, handbooks, and encyclopedias. Reviewers select research articles of their interest, organize them content-wise, criticize their findings, and offer their own suggestions and conclusions. Review articles are a good source for those investigators who wish to have all the relevant researches at one place without taking pains to look for them. Since the reviewers organize all the possible research papers of the relevant area in their review articles, review articles also provide the advantage of prior reviews (Singh, 1998: 362).

22. Guide to research

There are guides intended to direct you to the most important sources of information and scholarship in the area you are researching. Whereas indexes, bibliographies, and collections of abstracts tend to strive for comprehensiveness and objectivity in presenting information, guides to research are usually selective and evaluative.

23. Dictionaries

Dictionaries alphabetically arranged works that provide information, usually in concise form, about words or topics. Two of the most authoritative dictionaries of words are Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language and, especially for the history of a word's meanings and usage, The Oxford English Dictionary.

24. Yearbooks

Yearbooks present information about specific years in the past. Examples are The Americana Annual, Britannica Book of Year, Europa Yearbook, Far Eastern Economic Review Yearbook and Statistical Yearbook.

25. Almanac

An annual publication that includes a calendar for the year as well as astronomical information and details of anniversaries and events or an annually published book of information relating to a particular subject or activity. A book often but not always published annually, containing practical information on a particular subject. World almanac is an outstanding publication of this type.

26. Atlases

Atlases are collections of maps, usually published in book form, as a loose-leaf, boxed set. What often characterizes atlas maps is a standard design, organized around a coherent theme. Atlases are produced on a wide range of subjects. A national atlas provides base and thematic information about a particular country. The National Atlas of Unites States of America is the official atlas of the United States; The Times Atlas of the World covers regions and nations of the entire world.